3.1.1. Centralized Risk Knowledge Repository

Establishing the National Risk Register (NRR), aligned with the UNDRR’s DesInventar system, constitutes a centralized effort to standardize the recording of historical disaster loss data. This repository is intended to facilitate the longitudinal analysis of disaster events and identify risk patterns and trends for strategic planning.

3.1.2. Multi-Hazard and Geo-Spatial Assessment

The government formulated technical frameworks for addressing specific hazard profiles. The National Slope Master Plan (NSMP, 2009–2023), its extended NSMP 2025–2030 action plan, and the associated Slope Hazard and Risk Mapping (PBRC) framework provide a structured methodology for assessing geological risks including landslides and debris flows.

The DID developed the National Flood Forecasting and Warning System (NaFFWS) under the National Flood Forecasting and Warning Programme (PRAB) in 2015 to provide flood forecasting, warning, and dissemination services. It aims to develop an effective flood prediction and river monitoring system, distribute warnings through telemetry, radar, and rainfall data, and support decision-making ¹⁶.

The National Water Balance System (NAWABS), also developed by DID, provides a comprehensive water resource management framework based on a Sustainable Water Resource Management (SWRM) approach. It supports the goals of the National Water Resources Policy (NWRP) by helping river basin managers balance water supply and demand. This system improves the forecasting of future weather conditions and enables the assessment of risks associated with different operational strategies ¹⁷.

3.1.3. Real-Time Data and Public Information

Multiple public-facing digital platforms were deployed to communicate risk information. These include the Social Welfare Department’s Info Bencana portal, the DID’s MyPublicInfoBanjir, and the Public Works Department’s eBencana system. These platforms disseminate data on evacuation centers, flood levels, and infrastructure status, respectively. Furthermore, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the MySejahtera application and TracAPM were used for public health surveillance and response coordination, demonstrating the adaptive use of digital tools for risk management during a concurrent crisis.

3.1.4. Standardized Metrics for Urban Resilience

The benchmarking of urban resilience has advanced through the application of the Climate Disaster Resilience Index (CDRI) across multiple major cities. The findings from these assessments inform local development planning by demonstrating the strengths and weaknesses of dimensions such as physical, social, economic, institutional, and environmental conditions. Thus, PLANMalaysia published planning guidelines for disaster-resilient cities in Malaysia ¹⁸. An example of this initiative is the integration of resilience principles into the Penang Structure Plan 2030, which includes specific provisions for safeguarding cultural heritage assets from disaster risks.

3.1.5. Community-Led Early Warning System

An innovative pilot in Yan, Kedah exemplifies the integration of technological and community-based approaches. The project deployed a sensor-based early warning system for debris flows developed in collaboration with the Department of Mineral and Geoscience and local academia (Fig. 2). Crucially, this technological intervention was coupled with Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM), training local communities in risk awareness and response protocols to foster local ownership and enhance last-mile warning effectiveness.

3.1.6. Persistent Systemic Challenges

Despite these advancements, several systemic challenges constrain a comprehensive and proactive understanding of disaster risk. A primary issue is the fragmented governance of disaster-related data, where information remains siloed across multiple agencies with different mandates, hindering the development of a unified national risk profile. This fragmentation complicates efforts to effectively monitor the Sendai Framework targets and limits forward-looking systemic risk analysis that can anticipate compounding and cascading events. Although risk information is increasingly available, its systematic mainstreaming into development planning, investment decisions, and land-use policy remains inconsistent, indicating the need for stronger mechanisms to ensure that risk intelligence translates into concrete, risk-informed action across all sectors.

3.2.1. Strengthening National Disaster Governance and Multi-Level Coordination

Establishing the NADMA in 2015 marked a major shift toward centralized coordination and policy leadership. NADMA’s mandate includes preparedness, response, early warning coordination, and overall disaster governance, providing a single focal point for national decision-making ⁸. This centralization is reinforced by NADMA Directive No.1: Policy and Mechanism for National Disaster Risk Management ¹⁹, which updates and strengthens the provisions of the previous Malaysian National Security Council Directive No.20 by integrating ministries and technical agencies across multiple levels to manage disasters of various scales. This institutional restructuring improved coherence across federal agencies, particularly during emergency operations, and supported the alignment of national policies with international frameworks. This governance architecture has been further strengthened through the National Disaster Risk Reduction Policy 2030 (NDRR-P 2030), which establishes a unified, forward-looking national DRR direction by institutionalizing risk-informed development, enhancing multi-stakeholder coordination, and embedding resilience principles across federal, state, and local planning systems ⁸.

3.2.2. Empowering Sub-National Governance

Recognizing the critical role of local actors, states have established dedicated disaster management units to enhance localized response and planning ²⁰. For example, the Selangor Disaster Management Unit (SDMU) was established to optimize resources, respond at the state and district levels, and integrate DRR action into local risk-informed development agendas, with NADMA providing overarching coordination and policy support.

3.2.3. Mainstreaming DRR into Spatial Planning

The national aspiration for risk-informed sustainable development, demonstrated through federal commitment and local development, is implemented through the Town and Country Planning Act 1976 (Act 172), with support from public, private, academic, and civil society organizations. Generally, the direction of spatial development policies in Malaysia has been guided by the National Physical Plan (NPP), for example, the 4th NPP (2021–2025), followed by the respective State Structure Plans, District Local Plans, and Special Area Plans. In accordance with Act 172, the National Physical Planning Council (NPPC) has been used for multilevel governance to update, disseminate, and translate national policies into local action (Table 2).

In 2022, 24 local plans were revised, where relevant, to include seven categories of disasters, five types of disaster risk assessment maps, and mitigation measures. These efforts have contributed to a more coherent multilevel governance system by aligning national priorities with local planning instruments. Several notable documents include the Second National Physical Plan for Coastal Zones and the National Food Resource Area Land Use Planning Study. Technical guidelines on Disaster Resilient Cities in Malaysia ¹⁸ and Integrating Geo-disaster and Risk Management into the Preparation of Local Plans ²¹ issued by PLANMalaysia further operationalized DRR integration in local development control.

The Technical Committee on Earthquake, authorized by the Industry Standards Committee on Building, Construction, and Civil Engineering, developed the Malaysia National Annex 2017 in conjunction with MS EN 1998-1:2015. This standard follows the National Annex to BS EN 1998-1:2004, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance – Part 1: General rules, seismic actions, and rules for buildings.

From the perspectives of natural hazards triggering technological disasters (NATECH) and industrial risk, Malaysia’s experience over the past decade has been both catalytic and challenging. Consequently, regulators and operators must reconsider safety and emergency preparedness. In Johor, the Pasir Gudang Emergency Mutual Aid (PAGEMA) demonstrates how cluster-based mutual aid, joint drills, and shared resources between major hazard installations, local authorities, and first responders can improve readiness at the industrial-area level. Moreover, Malaysian Standard MS 2735:2021 on Emergency Preparedness and Response (EPR) provides a national standard for safe workplaces, exercises, and command-and-control arrangements.

3.2.4. Persistent Systemic Challenges

Despite the well-articulated governance framework, several challenges impede its optimal implementation. Vertical and horizontal coordination among agencies, while structured, can be hampered by bureaucratic silos and overlapping mandates, particularly during complex, transboundary crises. Integrating DRR into local development plans remains uneven and often depends on the variable capacities and political will of local authorities. Additionally, while community engagement mechanisms exist, sustaining meaningful participation and ownership at the community level, particularly among marginalized groups, requires more consistent resources and empowerment strategies. Advances in NATECH risks remain limited to a few high-risk hubs and larger operators, whereas many industrial areas and small- to medium-sized businesses remain in systematic technological and risk assessment, integrated emergency plans, or structured communications with nearby communities.

3.3.1. Public-Private Investments in DRR and Resilient Infrastructure

The government has undertaken substantial engineering projects to mitigate key hazards. For example, the Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel (SMART Tunnel) in Klang Valley is a globally recognized dual-purpose infrastructure that manages urban floodwater while alleviating traffic congestion ^22,23. In Kuching, the Sungai Sarawak Regulation Scheme (SSRS), a complex barrage and floodgate system, has been in operation for over two decades as a benchmark for integrated flood defense ²⁴.

To protect the coastline of Penang, the state has completed the RM12.9 million restoration of the 460 m Sea Wall Heritage Trail, a project to restore the historic seawall and esplanade promenade in George Town to strengthen coastal defense, protect heritage sites, and improve public access along the waterfront ²⁵. Additionally, the Sungai Batu Feringghi Marine Outfall and Sungai Satu Marine Outfall, initiated by the DID, were built as river marine outlets extending 120 m into the sea to protect rivers from river-mouth blockage and prevent sullage and sewerage pollution along the beach. These projects represent long-term, high-impact public investments in urban resilience ²⁶. See Fig. 3 for details.

3.3.2. Social Safety Nets and Response Capacity

Investments in social infrastructure have also increased. The number of evacuation centers has expanded to 9,058 nationwide as of November 1, 2025, ready to be activated at any time, with the capacity to accommodate approximately 2.18 million people in the event of floods or other disasters. Concurrently, budget allocations to key response agencies have grown. For instance, the JKM received an increased allocation of RM32.04 million in 2022, enabling improvements in data systems, continuous training, and disaster response capabilities.

In addition to infrastructure and institutional investments, the government provides immediate financial relief to disaster-affected households through the NADMA’s cash aid, which is disbursed to eligible household heads following verification by local authorities. This scheme was designed as an urgent support mechanism to alleviate the hardships for families affected by climate-induced disasters ²⁷.

3.3.3. Private DRR Investment

Leading corporations have begun aligning DRR with their operational and sustainability goals. Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB), as a major dam operator, has committed significant resources, such as a RM40 million investment in sediment dredging at the Sultan Abu Bakar Dam, to dam safety and community-based early warning systems. TNB’s initiatives, which include annual multi-agency drills and community engagement programs, demonstrate a shift toward anticipatory risk management and reflect its commitment to supporting national resilience alongside its net-zero emissions target.

Beyond individual firms, Government-Linked Companies (GLCs) and Government-Linked Investment Companies (GLICs) have increasingly channeled disaster-related contributions through the GLC Demi Rakyat dan Negara (GDRN) platform. As a coordinated corporate disaster-response mechanism, the GDRN mobilizes pooled resources such as cash assistance, essential goods, logistics assets, and volunteers to support national relief and early recovery efforts ²⁸. Consolidated GDRN and NADMA reports indicate that member companies provide substantial financial and operational support during major flood events and NADMA-led recovery missions, illustrating how corporate capacities complement state disaster management functions ²⁷. Although most private-sector engagement remains focused on humanitarian relief, the institutionalization of the GDRN aligns with UNDRR’s guidance on strengthening public–private partnerships for DRR and climate risk governance ²⁹.

3.3.4. Innovative Risk Financing and Insurance

Several financial instruments have been introduced to address this protection gap, particularly among low-income groups. The Kampungku microinsurance scheme in Kemaman provides prompt payouts to flood-affected villagers, while the government’s Perlindungan Tenang Voucher (PTV) program aims to make basic insurance more accessible to the B40 income group. These schemes, along with the expanding availability of flood coverage for vehicles and small and medium-sized enterprises, represent the initial steps toward diversifying financial risk transfer and promoting a culture of insurance.

3.3.5. Incorporating Nature-Based Solutions into Urban Resilience Investment

Cities with the largest share of the global population must prepare for rising temperatures, more frequent extreme weather, and sea level rise. The Penang Nature-based Climate Adaptation Programme (PNBCAP), Malaysia’s first climate adaptation initiative funded by the Adaptation Fund (AF) and implemented in partnership with UN-Habitat, was created through collaboration among the Penang Island City Council (MBPP), DID, and Think City. Instead of relying only on traditional grey infrastructure, such as concrete drains, the project leverages natural systems to address urban challenges, reduce heat, prevent flooding, and strengthen community resilience ³⁰.

3.3.6. Persistent Systemic Challenges

The DRR investment landscape faces several constraints. Chronic underinsurance persists, particularly among low-income populations, leaving many households and businesses financially vulnerable to shocks. Private sector investment remains largely limited to corporate social responsibility or regulatory compliance, with a lack of systematic economic incentives for broader preventive DRR investment. Furthermore, disaster risk-financing mechanisms, while innovative, are often pilot-based and lack sustainable long-term funding models to ensure scalability and permanence. Although public investment in infrastructure is evident, budgetary allocations for DRR are frequently reactive, rather than proactively embedded in risk-informed development planning, indicating the need for more predictable and mainstream financing to systematically build societal resilience.

3.4.1. Developing Models for Resilient Recovery

Moving beyond an immediate response, Malaysia pioneered the co-development of the Disaster Resilient Recovery Model, initially applied in Pasir Mas, Kelantan, following the 2022 flood. This assessment served as a national case study for developing a locally contextualized Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) model. This study involved systematic data collection, impact mapping, and field observations to capture the spatial and socioeconomic consequences of a disaster. The PDNA process was implemented through integrated collaboration among public agencies, NGOs, academic institutions, and private sector actors. This multi-sectoral approach strengthened the analytical depth of the assessment and supported the formulation of a recovery strategy that adhered to international PDNA standards while aligning with local realities and community needs.

3.4.2. Advancing Resilient Living Lab

Establishing a Resilient Living Lab (RLL) in Hulu Langat, Selangor, represents a parallel initiative aimed at enhancing community-centered resilience during the recovery and reconstruction phases. As one of the first RLLs in Malaysia, it functions as an experimental and participatory platform where scholars, practitioners, community members, and disaster management agencies can jointly observe, analyze, and refine local DRR practices. The lab promotes active community engagement, increases awareness of climate and disaster risks, and fosters continuous learning among stakeholders. The RLL contributes to the development of more responsive and inclusive recovery models capable of achieving long-term resilience by supporting iterative monitoring and adaptive planning throughout the rebuilding process. Within this RLL, several themes were identified as lessons learned for post-disaster recovery at Hulu Langat: (i) Disaster preparedness and early warning systems (EWS), (ii) Resilient Settlements, (iii) Rights to Clean Water, (iv) Resilient Infrastructure, and (v) Building Resilient Communities ³¹.

3.4.3. Scaling Up Community-Led Preparedness and Volunteerism

Community empowerment remains the core pillar of Malaysia’s national preparedness strategy. Recent program records indicate large-scale engagement through CBDRM initiatives, with 23,000 participants trained across multiple states in 2022, focusing on risk awareness, evacuation readiness, and local leadership strengthening ³². These engagements demonstrate a sustained national effort to localize disaster preparedness through participatory approaches.

This community capacity is reinforced by 9,902 registered volunteers under JKM, which provides critical surge support during emergencies, complementing formal response agencies through evacuation assistance, relief distribution, and psychosocial support ³³. Strengthening local volunteerism is further supported by the private sector, such as the TNB and Sarawak Energy Berhad, which periodically conduct community-focused emergency drills and dam safety awareness programs under corporate obligations.

A central institutional mechanism supporting this ecosystem is the Rakan NADMA (Friend of NADMA), a national platform that enhances the capacity, coordination, and visibility of NGOs in disaster management. The Rejuvenation Plan’s Rakan NADMA 2030 emphasizes that the platform consolidates multi-sector humanitarian expertise, strengthens governance, and improves the ability of NGOs to respond effectively to large-scale disasters. It positions the Rakan NADMA as a coordinated system for strengthening long-term commitment, capacity building, and risk governance, ensuring that NGOs remain an integral component of national preparedness and response architecture.

The expansion of CBDRM programs and the institutionalization of the Rakan NADMA reveal that while community involvement in disaster governance is increasing, the quality and consistency of participation across awareness, inclusiveness, empowerment, preparedness, and resource mobilization remain uneven, underscoring the need for standardized indicators, such as the Community Participation Index (CPI), to systematically measure these dimensions.

3.4.4. Persistent Systemic Challenges

Although preparedness systems are advancing, significant gaps have hindered their effectiveness. The “build back better” principle is not yet fully institutionalized within standard recovery frameworks, with a tendency to prioritize rapid restoration over resilient reconstruction that addresses underlying vulnerabilities. Furthermore, disaster preparedness and recovery planning often lack systematic integration of the specific needs of marginalized groups, including persons with disabilities, the elderly, women, and indigenous communities, indicating the need for more inclusive and targeted approaches. Additionally, community participation, although widely recognized as critical for preparedness and recovery, remains inconsistent, insufficiently institutionalized, and difficult to evaluate. Despite the expansion of CBDRM programs, volunteer networks, and community-led initiatives, Malaysia has not yet employed standardized indicators to assess participation quality, inclusiveness, or local empowerment. This gap underscores the need for structured tools for measuring community capacity and engagement across the disaster cycle ^3,20,34.