The 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake offers an important case for examining disaster in an ageing rural society. Existing studies have contributed substantially to understanding hazard processes and physical damage, but less attention has been given to the structure of vulnerability that shaped both disaster impacts and early recovery. This paper addresses that gap through an integrated analysis of vulnerability, culture and gender. Based on documentary analysis of official reports and peer-reviewed studies, the paper argues that the Noto disaster cannot be explained adequately by hazard impact alone. Its severity was shaped by the interaction of demographic ageing, depopulation, infrastructural fragility, care dependence, health-system constraints and place-based cultural systems. Infrastructure failure became socially consequential because it occurred in a setting marked by advanced ageing, limited redundancy and uneven access to medical care, social care and wider support. The analysis also suggests that culture functioned both as a source of vulnerability and as a possible resource in recovery.

1. [1] Japan Meteorological Agency, “The 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake,” 2024.
2. [2] G. Pescaroli and D. Alexander, “A definition of cascading disasters and cascading effects: Going beyond the ‘toppling dominos’ metaphor,” Planet@Risk, Vol.3, No.1, pp. 58-67, 2015.
3. [3] G. Chen, Y. Wu, M. Xia, and Z. Li, “Focal mechanics and disaster characteristics of the 2024 M7.6 Noto Peninsula earthquake, Japan,” Frontiers of Structural and Civil Engineering, Vol.18, No.9, pp. 1378-1387, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-024-1111-1
4. [4] Y. Fukushima, D. Ishimura, N. Takahashi, Y. Iwasa, L. C. Malatesta, T. Takahashi, C.-H. Tang, K. Yoshida, and S. Toda, “Landscape changes caused by the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake in Japan,” Science Advances, Vol.10, Article No.eadp9193, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adp9193
5. [5] H. Masuda, D. Sugawara, A.-C. Cheng, A. Suppasri, Y. Shigihara, S. Kure, and F. Imamura, “Modeling the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake tsunami: Implications for tsunami sources in the eastern margin of the Japan Sea,” Geoscience Letters, Vol.11, Article No.29, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40562-024-00344-8
6. [6] Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, “White Paper on Disaster Management 2024,” 2024 (in Japanese).
7. [7] Fire and Disaster Management Agency, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, “Damage Situation and Firefighting Response Related to the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake,” 2024 (in Japanese).
8. [8] NHK, “NHK Archives: Noto Earthquake,” 2024 (in Japanese). https://www2.nhk.or.jp/archives/movies/?id=D0009030915_00000 [Accessed April 16, 2026]
9. [9] The Asahi Shimbun, “Noto Peninsula Earthquake,” 2024 (in Japanese). https://www.asahi.com/topics/AP-1838b57a-bf55-4fee-8c74-0af2f8f50cb7/2024 [Accessed April 16, 2026]
10. [10] A. Laosunthara, K. Saengtabtim, A. Suppasri, N. Leelawat, and T. Ohashi, “Disaster management in a shrinking society: The 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake’s holiday shutdown, challenges and lessons learned,” Int. J. of Disaster Risk Reduction, Vol.125, Article No.105582, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105582
11. [11] N. Inagaki, Y. Nishida, T. Mikami, R. Nakamura, I. Nistor, M. Soltanpour, N. Goseberg, and T. Shibayama, “Field survey of the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake and tsunami in Japan: Characteristics of damage patterns to coastal communities,” Ocean Engineering, Vol.316, Article No.119765, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2024.119765
12. [12] B. Wisner, P. Blaikie, T. Cannon, and I. Davis, “At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters, 2nd ed.,” Routledge, 2004.
13. [13] S. L. Cutter, B. J. Boruff, and W. L. Shirley, “Social vulnerability to environmental hazards,” Social Science Quarterly, Vol.84, No.2, pp. 242-261, 2003. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6237.8402002
14. [14] K. Tierney, “The Social Roots of Risk: Producing Disasters, Promoting Resilience,” Stanford University Press, 2014.
15. [15] M. Kamiyama, M. Sato, R. Ichijo, D. Sato, and J. Morris, “A psychometric evaluation of preserving cultural heritage as a form of psychosocial support after disaster,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.19, No.6, pp. 886-895, 2024. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2024.p0886
16. [16] M. Li, “Disaster risk management of cultural heritage: A global scale analysis of characteristics, multiple hazards, lessons learned from historical disasters, and issues in current DRR measures in World Heritage sites,” Int. J. of Disaster Risk Reduction, Vol.110, Article No.104633, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104633
17. [17] Y. Kaneda, A. Ozaki, M. Endo, E. Nakamura, and H. Beniya, “2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake: Elderly evacuees and mental health challenges,” QJM: An Int. J. of Medicine, Vol.117, No.7, pp. 549-550, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hcae062
18. [18] T. Sakamoto, K. Asano, H. Miyata, and T. Amagai, “Meals in shelters during the Noto Peninsula earthquake are deficient in energy and protein for older adults vulnerable to disaster: Challenges and responses,” Nutrients, Vol.16, No.12, Article No.1904, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16121904
19. [19] E. Enarson and P. G. D. Chakrabarti, “Women, Gender and Disaster: Global Issues and Initiatives,” Sage, 2009.
20. [20] United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, “Policy Brief: Gender-Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction,” 2023.
21. [21] United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030,” 2015.
22. [22] K. Hewitt, “The idea of calamity in a technocratic age,” K. Hewitt (Ed.), “Interpretations of Calamity from the Viewpoint of Human Ecology,” Unwin Hyman, pp. 3-32, 1983.
23. [23] D. A. McEntire, “Triggering agents, vulnerabilities and disaster reduction: Towards a holistic paradigm,” Disaster Prevention and Management, Vol.10, No.3, pp. 189-196, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653560110395359
24. [24] B. Wisner, “Vulnerability as concept, model, metric, and tool,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.013.25
25. [25] N. Phraknoi, J. Sutanto, Y. Hu, Y. S. Goh, and C. E. C. Lee, “Older people’s needs in urban disaster response: A systematic literature review,” Int. J. of Disaster Risk Reduction, Vol.96, Article No.103809, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103809
26. [26] S. Ashida, E. L. Robinson, J. Gay, and M. Ramirez, “Motivating rural older residents to prepare for disasters: Moving beyond personal benefits,” Ageing & Society, Vol.36, No.10, pp. 2117-2140, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X15000914
27. [27] UNESCO, “Disaster Risk Reduction for Culture and Designated Sites,” 2024.
28. [28] UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Managing Disaster Risks for World Heritage,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2010.
29. [29] A. Acanga, B. Matovu, V. Murale, and S. Arlikatti, “Gender perspectives in disaster response: An evidence-based review,” Progress in Disaster Science, Vol.26, Article No.100416, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2025.100416
30. [30] T. Crawford, K.-Y. J. Chang, F. Nila, P. Subramaniam, L. Bethune, D. Parkinson, and M. Villeneuve, “The intersectionality of gender, sexual identity, and disability in disaster risk reduction in OECD countries: A rapid scoping review,” Disabilities, Vol.3, No.4, pp. 562-578, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities3040036
31. [31] D. P. Aldrich, “Building Resilience: Social Capital in Post-Disaster Recovery,” University of Chicago Press, 2012.
32. [32] T. Nakasu, “A Fundamental vulnerability: Contributions from population studies,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.16, No.6, pp. 936-941, 2021. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2021.p0936
33. [33] K. Vink, K. Takeuchi, and K. M. Kibler, “A quantitative estimate of vulnerable people and evaluation of flood evacuation policy,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.9, No.5, pp. 887-900, 2014. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2014.p0887
34. [34] E. Yamasaki and H. Hayashi, “People who cannot move during a disaster: Initiatives and examples in japan Disaster victim support,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.12, No.1, pp. 137-146, 2017. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2017.p0137
35. [35] K. Tamura and M. Inoguchi, “Proposal of elements for creating scenarios for those needing support during national disasters,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.11, No.5, pp. 870-880, 2016. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2016.p0870
36. [36] J. Kanai and S. Nakano, “Evacuation behavior of facilities for the elderly in the heavy rain of July 2018,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.14, No.6, pp. 922-935, 2019. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2019.p0922
37. [37] S. Sato, R. Ishibashi, and M. Sugiura, “Two major elements of life recovery after a disaster: Their impacts dependent on housing damage and the contributions of psycho-behavioral factors,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.16, No.7, pp. 1107-1120, 2021. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2021.p1107
38. [38] T. Itatani, M. Kojima, J. Tanaka, R. Horiike, K. Shibata, and R. Sasaki, “Operational management and improvement strategies of evacuation centres during the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake: A case study of Wajima City,” Safety, Vol.10, No.3, Article No.62, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety10030062
39. [39] M. Kosaka, C. Yamamoto, K. Ishikawa et al., “Establishing and operating welfare shelters in the aftermath of the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake: A case study of adaptive management for vulnerable populations,” Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, Vol.19, Article No.e148, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2025.10057
40. [40] Statistics Bureau of Japan, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, “Population and Households of Japan 2020: Overview of the Results of the 2020 Population Census,” 2024.
41. [41] Ishikawa Prefecture, “Statistical Data on Population by Age Group,” 2024 (in Japanese).
42. [42] T. Mashio, Y. Morisaki, and M. Fujiu, “Analysis of leisure activities and residential intentions in depopulated areas: A case study of Wajima City, Ishikawa Prefecture,” Sustainability, Vol.16, Article No.9339, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16219339
43. [43] Anamizu Town, “The 9th Long-Term Care Insurance Project and Elderly Welfare Plan,” 2024 (in Japanese).
44. [44] Suzu City, “Elderly Welfare Plan and Long-Term Care Insurance Project Plan,” 2021 (in Japanese).
45. [45] Japan Medical Association Research Institute, Japan Medical Analysis Platform (JMAP), “Regional Medical Information System: Ishikawa Prefecture,” (in Japanese). https://jmap.jp/cities/detail/pref/17 [Accessed June 27, 2026]
46. [46] Health and Global Policy Institute, Japan Health Policy NOW, “Regional Medical Care Delivery System Maintenance.” https://japanhpn.org/en/section-4-4/ [Accessed June 27, 2026]
47. [47] OECD, “OECD Health at a Glance 2023: Country Note: Japan,” OECD, 2023.
48. [48] Health and Global Policy Institute, Japan Health Policy NOW, “Overview of Japan’s Healthcare Delivery System.” https://japanhpn.org/en/section-4-1-2/ [Accessed June 27, 2026]
49. [49] F. Makinoshima, S. Yotsui, S. Sato, and F. Imamura, “Large-scale geolocation data reveal evacuation behaviour during the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake and tsunami,” Communications Earth & Environment, Vol.6, Article No.891, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02819-8
50. [50] United Nations, “World Social Report 2023: Leaving No One Behind in an Ageing World,” 2023.
51. [51] Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, “Cases Certified and Not Certified as Disaster-Related Deaths in the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake (Disaster-Related Death Casebook),” 2026 (in Japanese).
52. [52] P. Buckle, “Preparedness, warning and evacuation,” B. Wisner, J. C. Gaillard, and I. Kelman (Eds.), “Handbook of Hazards and Disaster Risk Reduction,” Routledge, pp. 493-504, 2012.
53. [53] D. Yang, M. Minami, A. U. Fahim, and T. Kawashita, “A timeline-based study of the early reconstruction phases in Ishikawa Prefecture following the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake,” Sustainability, Vol.16, Article No.10838, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162410838
54. [54] S. Nagata, E. Mas, Y. Takeda, T. Nakaya, and S. Koshimura, “Multiple hazards and population change in Japan’s Suzu City after the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake,” Progress in Disaster Science, Vol.25, Article No.100396, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2024.100396
55. [55] M. Ishiwatari, S. Nomura, S. Kanbara, S. Matharage, and D. Aldrich, “The role of social infrastructure in community-based disaster resilience: A case study of the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake,” Int. J. of Disaster Risk Reduction, Vol.134, Article No.106033, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2026.106033
56. [56] K. Muroi, M. Takahashi, and K. Tadokoro, “Depopulated Fishing Village Under the Prediction of a Nankai Trough Earthquake: Social Vulnerability and High Ground Relocation Planning in Taiki-cho, Mie Prefecture,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.21, No.1, pp. 101-113, 2026. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2026.p0101
57. [57] M. Inagaki, “Exploring of the factors behind disaster-related deaths,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.19, No.1, pp. 173-181, 2024. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2024.p0173
58. [58] S. Niinuma, “Medical restructuring and family behaviour in rural Tohoku: A case study of public hospital reform in Tome City, Miyagi Prefecture,” J. of Rural Studies, Vol.19, No.1, pp. 25-36, 2012 (in Japanese). https://doi.org/10.9747/jars.19.1_25
59. [59] T. Tanaka, T. Kano, Y. Iwabuchi et al., “Longitudinal research on support needs and changes in care awareness among family caregivers in disaster-affected areas: Findings from seven follow-up surveys of 32 households,” Bulletin of the Faculty of Social Welfare, Iwate Prefectural University, Vol.19, pp. 75-80, 2017 (in Japanese).