The prediction performance of numerical models of tsunami wave pressure on land structures was investigated using blind tests. Two types of numerical models were used, based on the volume-of-fluid (VOF) method. Both models reproduced the experimental results well for water-level time series. For wave-pressure time series, some differences were observed between the two models in the vertical distribution of wave pressure during the initial rise. In both models, however, the experimental results showed that overall trends for total wave force were in good agreement. The experimental results produced a value slightly higher than the maximum wave force, suggesting that caution is needed when designing structures to ensure that wave force is not underestimated.

1. [1] A. Suppasri, E. Mas, I. Charvet, R. Gunasekera, K. Imai, Y. Fukutani, Y. Abe, and F. Imamura, “Building damage characteristics based on surveyed data and fragility curves of the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami,” Nat. Hazards, Vol.66, No.2, pp. 319-341, 2013.
2. [2] N. Kihara, Y. Niida, D. Takabatake, H. Kaida, A. Shibayama, and Y. Miyagawa, “Large-scale experiments on tsunami-induced pressure on a vertical tide wall,” Coast. Eng., Vol.99, pp. 46-63, 2015.
3. [3] R. H. Cross, “Tsunami surge forces,” J. Waterway and Harbour Div., Vol.93, No.4, pp. 201-231, 1967.
4. [4] E. Cumberbatch, “The impact of a water wedge on a wall,” J. Fluid Mech., Vol.7, Issue 3, pp. 353-374, 1960.
5. [5] J. D. Ramsden, “Forces on a vertical wall due to long waves, bores, and dry-bed surges,” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Eng., Vol.122, Issue 3, pp. 134-141, 1996.
6. [6] H. Yeh, “Design tsunami forces for onshore structures,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.2, No.6, pp. 531-536, 2007.
7. [7] J. D. Ramsden and F. Raichlen, “Forces on vertical wall caused by incident bores,” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Eng., Vol.116, Issue 5, pp. 592-613, 1990.
8. [8] H. Matsutomi, “An experimental study on pressure and total force due to bores,” Proc. of Coastal Engineering, JSCE, Vol.38, pp. 626-630, 1991 (in Japanese).
9. [9] N. Mizutani and M. Miyajima, “Internal velocity field of tsunami acting on a vaertical wall in the transition process from impact wave pressure to sustained wave pressure,” J. JSCE, Ser. B2 (Coast. Eng.), Vol.71, Issue 2, pp. I_937-I_942, 2015 (in Japanese).
10. [10] R. Asakura, K. Iwase, T. Ikeya, M. Takao, T. Kaneto, N. Fujii, and M. Ohmori, “The tsunami wave force acting on land structures,” Proc. 28th Int. Conf. Coastal Engineering (ICCE2002), pp. 1191-1202, 2003.
11. [11] K. Fujima, F. Achmad, Y. Shigihara, and N. Mizutani, “Estimation of tsunami force acting on rectangular structures,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.4, No.6, pp. 404-409, 2009.
12. [12] T. Sakakiyama, “Tsunami pressure on structures due to tsunami inundation flow,” Proc. 34th Int. Conf. Coastal Engineering (ICCE2014), Vol.34, Structures 42, 2014.
13. [13] T. Arimitsu and K. Kawasaki, “Development of estimation method of tsunami wave pressure exerting on land structure using depth-integrated flow model,” Coast. Eng. J., Vol.58, No.4, pp. 1640021-1-1640021-18, 2016.
14. [14] P. V. Phuc, Y. Imazu, T. Sagawa, and M. Hasebe, “Tsunami simulation using VOF method and falling mechanism of a building in Tohoku-Pacific Coast Earthquake,” J. JSCE, Ser.B2 (Coast. Eng.), Vol.70, Issue 2, pp. I_156-I_160, 2014 (in Japanese).
15. [15] T. Arikawa and T. Tomita, “Development of high precision tsunami runup calculation method based on a hierarchical simulation,” J. Disaster Res., Vol.11, No.4, pp. 639-646, 2016.
16. [16] P. St-Germain, I. Nistor, R. Townsend, and T. Shibayama, “Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics numerical modeling of structures impacted by tsunami bores,” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Eng., Vol.140, Issue 1, pp. 66-81, 2014.
17. [17] S. Douglas and I. Nistor, “On the effect of bed condition on the development of tsunami-induced loading on structures using OpenFOAM,” Nat. Hazards, Vol.76, No.2, pp. 1335-1356, 2015.
18. [18] W. Yang, Z. Wen, F. Li, and Q. Li, “Study on tsunami force mitigation of the rear house protected by the front house,” Ocean Eng., Vol.159, pp. 268-279, 2018.
19. [19] P. Xie and V. H. Chu, “The forces of tsunami waves on a vertical wall and on a structure of finite width,” Coast. Eng., Vol.149, pp. 65-80, 2019.
20. [20] T. Arimitsu, K. Ooe, and K. Kawasaki, “Hydraulic experiment on evaluation method of tsunami wave pressure using inundation depth and velocity in front of land structure,” J. JSCE, Ser.B2 (Coast. Eng.), Vol.68, Issue 2, pp. I_776-I_780, 2012 (in Japanese).
21. [21] Tsunami Mitigation Research Portal Site, https://tsunami-portal.bosai.go.jp/en/index [accessed March 19, 2021]
22. [22] T. Arikawa, F. Yamada, and M. Akiyama, “Study of applicability of tsunami wave force in a three-dimensional numerical wave flume,” Proc. Coast. Eng., JSCE, Vol.52, pp. 46-50, 2005 (in Japanese).
23. [23] D. Gueyffier, J. Li, A. Nadim, R. Scardovelli, and S. Zaleski, “Volume-of-Fluid interface tracking with smoothed surface stress methods for three-dimensional flows,” J. Comp. Phys., Vol.152, Issue 2, pp. 423-456, 1999.
24. [24] OpenFOAM-v1712, https://www.openfoam.com/ [accessed March 25, 2021]
25. [25] C. J. Willmott, S. M. Robeson, and K. Matsuura, “A refined index of model performance,” Int. J. Climatol., Vol.32, No.13, pp. 2088-2094, 2012.
26. [26] V. Gruwez, C. Altomare, T. Suzuki, M. Streicher, L. Cappietti, A. Kortenhaus, and P. Troch, “Validation of RANS modelling for wave interactions with sea dikes on shallow foreshores using a large-scale experimental dataset,” J. Mar. Sci. Eng., Vol.8, No.9, Article No.650, 2020.
27. [27] T. Sakakiyama, “Verification of numerical simulation model CADMAS-SURF/3D for tsunami acting on structures,” Annu. J. Civil Eng. Ocean, JSCE, Vol.26, pp. 285-290, 2010 (in Japanese).